FUNJ

Sinnar’s rise occurred in 1504 just as Alodia [i] (Alwa in Arabic) — the last Christian Kingdom of Nubia [ii] — declined. Scholars have posited multiple competing theories [iii] to explain Funj's origins, including that they either migrated from Abyssinia, broke off from a tribal group, or fled to the region as refugees [iv]. By the 18th century, the Funj kingdom was politically weakened [v] by a series of coups and succession wars that distracted it from the upkeep and modernization of its army. As a result, when Muhammad Ali’s forces marched on Sinnar to acquire slaves to expand his army, the Funj sultanate surrendered without a fight.

Although the Ottomans and the Funj were aligned religiously as fellow Muslim powers, the sultanate sided with its Christian neighbor, Ethiopia [vi], to gain access to gold mines. While the Funj-Ethiopia alliance ensured the pair’s tight control over the production of gold, frequent boundary disputes soured an otherwise mutually beneficial relationship. The Ottomans, in contrast, were aggressors bent on conquering the Funj [vii], who posed an obstacle to Ottoman expansion into northeast Africa. Funj scholars, however, traveled frequently to religious gatherings in Ottoman territories. The reputation of Funj scholars in the Ottoman Empire helped to establish the kingdom’s legitimacy as an Islamic power.

The Funj saw to it that Islam spread widely. During its 300-year rule, Islam emerged from its narrow foothold among the elite, finding acceptance as the religion of the masses. The proliferation of Islam was facilitated by religious scholars who set up Quranic schools [viii] in local villages and filled the vacuum in services [ix] for the peasant class when the kingdom was embroiled in civil wars. Today, the legacy of the so-called Blue Nile holy men is evident, given that Sudan is considered one of the world’s Arab-Islamic states. A difficult coexistence remains between the country’s Arab-Islamic hegemony and its enduring African heritage.

Power was dispersed through a system of subordinate provincial rulers, with final authority belonging to the Sultan. As provincial rulers, leaders of the Fazughli, Keili, and Gule had strategic proximity to trade [x] organized by the Funj Sultanate. With the growth of commercial trade, the capital city gained a large community of foreign merchants. Since these foreigners fell outside the purview of customary law, the Funj kingdom established a separate legal system whereby Islamic judges adjudicated matters [xi] among the foreign traders. In the kingdom’s latter years, the lead judge called the Great Qadi, began to compete with the Sultan for judicial dominance.

Three centuries of Funj civilization were made possible by the kingdom’s military might, especially with the conquering of the Fazughli Kingdom [xii]. By importing cannons and advanced firearms, the Funj calvary and infantry were sufficiently equipped to halt both offensives from neighboring Ethiopia and the expansionist tendencies of the Ottomans. Funj gained a reputation as a cultured, cosmopolitan society that provided a safe haven for misfits such as outlaws, debtors, and “wizards escaping execution in their own communities. [xiii]” Through its system of provincial lords, the Funj sultanate brought a disparate set of tribal communities under its sphere of influence.

Funj society represents a successful transition [xiv] from a nomadic lifestyle of animal husbandry to the creation of a flourishing permanent settlement. Additionally, the introduction of an Islamic judicial system was a huge innovation. These judges were some of the first to introduce cash penalties [xv] against those found guilty of crimes. Fines enabled a move away from corporal punishment and the use of the death penalty. The Islamic judiciary displayed the nimbleness necessary to adjudicate matters among a diverse population. Despite the growth of Islam, some African traditions and Christian institutions survived. Modern pilgrimages to the tombs of saints [xvi] are but one example.

Funj commitment to Islam helped facilitate commercial relations with Muslim merchants, whose presence in North Africa [xvii] had exploded since the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641. By the 17th century, Sinnar had become a cosmopolitan hub [xviii]. This wealth came from the trade of slaves kidnapped from the enemy territory at Sinnar’s southern border [xix] or from tribal groups in the Nuba mountains [xx]. Slaves were sold to Egyptian markets via caravan routes. Other funding came from annual tributes brought by provincial nobles to the Sultan [xxi]. The introduction of coined money subverted the sultanate’s monopoly on commerce, allowing the new merchant class to gain control.